Who was Muhammad? A prophet or just a delusional man?

Muhammad

Who was Muhammad?

This article is based upon historical facts available to anyone
who seeks the truth over trusting the biased teachings of deceived men.

There are no ancient non-Muslim sources on the life of Muhammad, Islam's prophet and founder. All ever written of him was done so by biased followers of his teachings. There are two main sources for a history of Muhammad's life, both of which are Islamic. While the Quran itself is not a biographical work, it does provide information as to the life and mind of the founder of Islam. The two ancient biographies of Muhammad are the Life History of Muhammad, by Ibn-Ishaq (A.D. 768), edited by Ibn-Hisham (A.D. 833); and The Expeditions of Muhammad, by Al-Waqidi (A.D. 822). The evidences from these sources provide a picture of the life and history of Muhammad.

Muhammad was born at Mecca in 570 in a Quraish tribe that ruled over the city and the surrounding area. His father died on a trading trip at Yathrib just before Muhammad's birth and his mother was left to raise him. Mothers in Quraish tribes traditionally handed their infants over to a nurse from a Bedouin tribe believing that the air of the desert was healthier. Muhammad was given to Halima, who nursed him for 2 years before returning the boy to his mother. Muhammad's mother feared for his health in the air of Mecca and instructed the nurse to take him back to the desert for two more years. When Halima returned a second time she reported that Muhammad had been having "fits" and she feared that he may be demon possessed. However, she was once again persuaded to return Muhammad to the desert. After an increasing number of these "fits" took place, she returned him to his mother at the age of five. Shortly thereafter, while returning from a trip to Yathrib, Muhammad's mother died leaving him to the care of his grandfather.

After his grandfather's death 2 years later, Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib raised him. At age 12, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on mercantile trips to Damascus and other cities. He spent his youth tending the sheep and goats in the valleys of Mecca . Later in life he would recall his childhood saying, "Even such as I used to gather, feeding the flocks in the valley of Mecca : and truly no prophet hath been raised up but first he hath done the work of a shepherd."

When Muhammad was 25, while working for a wealthy widow merchant of Mecca , he accompanied her trading caravan to Syria. The widow, Khadija, was impressed with him and on their return trip offered to marry him. Although she was nearly twice his age, he agreed to the marriage. She bore him 4 daughters and 2 sons, the sons dieing in infancy, before her death.

Very much in the same way that Mormonism began in the United States by a self proclaimed prophet named Joseph Smith, Muhammad found himself at age 40 seeking a religion other that of the Old or New Testament Bible. He sought another faith, a "one true religion", and began meditating in the caves around Mecca in hopes of finding it.

As he meditated and sought this "true religion" in a cave outside Mecca, it is said that he composed the chapters of the Quran. No scribes accompanied Muhammad on these trips. The Quran is written in 7th century Arabic, the same language spoken by the very literate Bedouins who raised him.

It is well documented that Muhammad suffered from bad dreams, trances, and visions, and it was documented that he was so troubled by them that at times he sought escape by suicide. It was during one of these suicide attempts that Islam teaches the angel Gabriel called out to him, "O Muhammad, thou who art the Prophet of the lord, I am Gabriel". It is also said that when Muhammad would have a "revelation" sweat would his brow would sweat profusely and he would drop to the ground, at which time supposedly Gabriel would again appear to him and repeat his instruction that Muhammad was a prophet of Allah sent to reclaim the lost people of the land. It was these visions and Muhammad's claimed revelations from the Angel Gabriel that led to the religion of Islam. When Muhammad first began having the visions, he feared that the messages were coming from Jinn, or evil spirits. Perhaps he was correct in this assumption.

Note the next source of deception as it then takes place. Does it sound familiar?

It was his wife who convinced him that the visions were divinely inspired and that Muhammad was a true prophet. Even though she did not personally partake of these dreams and visions, and did not see the Angel Gabriel herself, she did see the advantage to having a husband revered as a "messenger of God". Thus he began spreading his revelations and gathering followers of the "one true religion" of Islam.

As Muhammad's converts grew, he began to speak out against the Meccans and their idol worship. We can at least give Muhammad credit for his anti-idolatry stand. It was this conflict with the Meccans that led to the first blood shed in the name of Islam. As the opposition grew, Muhammad instructed his followers who could not protect themselves to go into hiding in Ethiopia. Not able to protect his remaining followers, and having no real foundational truth to fall back on, Muhammad dishonored his God by compromising with the Meccans in incorporating some of their idols into the evolving religion of Islam. He proclaimed that Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat, three Meccan deities, were exalted goddesses and their intercession was to be sought. This led to the Meccans accepting Islam. Muhammad later confessed that the compromise was inspired by Satan.

Ten years after he introduced Islam to the world, Muhammad's wife died. Two months later he married first a widow, and then a six-year-old girl. He would eventually be married to 15 women. He married someone new every year following his first wife's death, many of them as a result of the taking of women as captives during his ongoing war and plunder in the name of Allah.. Women left alive after a war with rival tribes would be taken as Muhammad's wives. Other wives were taken for political gain because of their societal status or relation to local government officials. Islam taught that men were only allowed four wives. Muhammad once again made an exception for himself, however, in his writing of Surat 33:50.

O Prophet! Lo! We have made lawful unto thee thy wives unto whom thou hast paid their dowries, and those whom thy right hand possesseth of those whom Allah hath given thee as spoils of war, and a believing woman if she give herself unto the Prophet and the Prophet desire to ask her in marriage - a privilege for thee only, not for the rest of believers.

Islam spread rapidly in Yathrib, now Medina, and Muhammad took his followers there to settle and build a great Mosque.

After settling the area for his followers Muhammad married a 6 year-old girl.
According to Tabari (also according to Hisham ibn ‘Urwah, Ibn Hunbal and Ibn Sad), Muhammad's 6 year old bride, Ayesha was betrothed at six years of age and began to cohabit (have sexual relations) with the Prophet at the age of nine years.

Islamic scholar's teaching of Mohammad's pedophilia:

Sahih Muslim Book 008, Number 3310:
'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) reported: Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) married me when I was six years old, and I was admitted to his house when I was nine years old.

Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 64
Narrated 'Aisha:
that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old, and then she remained with him for nine years (i.e., till his death).

Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 65
Narrated 'Aisha:
that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old. Hisham said: I have been informed that 'Aisha remained with the Prophet for nine years (i.e. till his death)." what you know of the Quran (by heart)'

Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 88
Narrated 'Ursa:
The Prophet wrote the (marriage contract) with 'Aisha while she was six years old and consummated his marriage with her while she was nine years old and she remained with him for nine years (i.e. till his death).

Some Muslims claim that it was Aisha's father Abu Bakr who approached Muhammad asking him to marry his daughter. This can be proven as false through the following:

Sahih Bukhari 7.18
Narrated 'Ursa:
The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother." The Prophet said, "You are my brother in Allah's religion and His Book, but she (Aisha) is lawful for me to marry."

Some offer up the quite shallow excuse for the 54 year old man Muhammad's marriage to a 6 year old girl as being acceptable in the culture and era of Muhammad's life. No. It was not acceptable. Such relationships were not only frowned upon, but would bring about severe punishment, by both authorities and citizens if participated in by the average man.

The Quran in Sura 33:50 grants Muhammad additional wide latitude in his marriages not allowed to the commoner of his era:

"O Prophet, We have made lawful to you those of your wives, whose dowers you have paid, and those women who come into your possession out of the slave-girls granted by Allah, and the daughters of your paternal uncles and aunts, and of your maternal uncles and aunts, who have migrated with you, and the believing woman who gives herself to the Prophet, if the Prophet may desire her. This privilege is for you only, not for the other believers" . . . . (Maududi vol. 4, p. 111, emphasis added).

This lengthy verse says that besides those women whose dower Muhammad paid, he could marry slave-girls. Maududi references three slave-girls taken during raids, plus Mary the Copt, a gift from an Egyptian ruler. Muhammad could also marry his first cousins, (which can cause genetic disorders) and Maududi cites a case in which this happened. If a believing woman offered herself to Muhammad, and he desired her, then he could marry her (cousin or not) (Maududi vol. 4, note 88).

This latter self-ordained "permission" by Mohammad is the most suspect. "Revelations" that sexually or financially benefit a founder or leader of a religious movement always raise concern for objective outsiders, as it should for those within the group, unless someone has the imbecilic belief that the human founder has achieved "sinless perfection" and can do no wrong. Even so, the sexual sin in itself automatically cancels out that same supposed sinless perfection.

Mohammad takes his son's wife as his own = Incest

But the final slap in the face of morality through these "special" marriages occurs when Muhammad also courts and then marries the wife Zainab of his adopted son Zaid. His son divorced Zainab after Muhammad's pointed lascivious attention to the girl prompted her to begin comparing her husband's "worth" with the "Messenger of God" Muhammad. It is documented that she flaunted Mohammad's attention before her young husband causing him to seek liberation of his wife turned tormentor. Early Islamic documents show that while arriving unannounced Muhammad caught a glimpse of his daughter-in-law in a state of undress, and he desired her. To be sure that the whole ignominious affair is accepted by his naive followers, Muhammad comes up with another self serving "prophecy" in which Allah conveniently "reveals" to him that this marriage between father-in-law and daughter-in-law is legal and moral in Sura 33:36-44.

Holy Wars
Following this time of obfuscation concerning his sexual iniquities, a long list of "holy wars" began. The decimation of the population that took place during these wars is considered by many, as Godly retribution upon Muhammad and his followers.

Forced religious conversion to Islam, still practiced today:
The people who were conquered in these battles were given three choices: accept Islam, pay tribute, or die by the sword (see the Repentance Surat, verse 29). As a result of this method of forced conversion, many Christian churches were turned into mosques to please the conquering Muslims, while most Christians, not willing to deny their faith in God and His Son Jesus, were killed.

After the Battle of Badr, Mohammad proclaimed the ordinance "Know that whatsoever thing ye plunder, verily one-fifth thereof is for God and for the Prophet (himself)." The remaining spoils, after Muhammad received one-fifth, were divided among the warriors. This began the teachings of Jihad, and fighting for the cause of Islam now carried with it a margin of financial profit. Muhammad taught that to die for the cause of Islam was the highest honor and would lead to eternity in Paradise surrounded by virgins. What better way to have hoards of brute-minded warriors at your disposal than to offer them a share in plunder, a pardon of sins, and multiple (virginal) sex partners with large eyes (?) through out eternity.

Surat al-Nisa 4:74 Let those fight in the way of Allah who sell the life of this world for the other. Whoso fighteth in the way of Allah, be he slain or be he victorious, on him We shall bestow a vast reward.

Notice in the next verse how Mohammad places himself on the level of Allah when he seeks protection from his enemies. And I'm sure he had many.

Surat al-Ma'idah 5:33 The only reward of those who make war upon Allah and His messenger and strive after corruption in the land will be that they will be killed or crucified, or have their hands and feet on alternate sides cut off, or will be expelled out of the land. Such will be their degradation in the world, and in the Hereafter theirs will be an awful doom.

In the Battle with the Quraiza Jews, over two thousand Jews were slaughtered by Muhammad and his warriors. In the bloodbath, Zainab, (his adopted son's ex-wife) lost her husband, father, and brother. Seeking revenge, Zainab poisoned Muhammad's dinner. Muhammad spit out the food before it could kill him, but its effects on him combined with pneumonia in the eleventh year of the Hijra, led to his death at age 64.

Muhammad died as any man does. There were never any records, writings, or even a single testimony that Muhammad was resurrected from death or came back to life. No one ever saw Muhammad again. He is dead and will be raised up on the Day of Judgment by the true God who has shown Himself to us in the Holy Bible (not in the Quran). Muhammad will face judgment before God as every other mortal and lost man will do. The blood and souls of millions of innocents will be upon his hands.

God's chosen people, the Jews, and those people redeemed by the Blood of God's only Son, the Christians, were slaughtered at the hands of Muslims while under the influence of Muhammad's vile teachings.

History tells us that the twelve months following Muhammad's death were spent in bitter, bloody battles to subdue the Arab tribes who became apostate. However, Islam continued to grow after Muhammad's death, led by four Khalifs elected by the closest followers of the prophet. Jihad also continued in much the same way it had under their prophet. In 634 the Islamic military force advanced on Palestine and Syria, and defeated the Byzantine armies at Yarmouk River in 636. Forty thousand more Muslims marched to conquer North Africa, followed by the surrender of Jerusalem to the plundering Muslims.

Over one million Armenian Christians were savagely slaughtered by the Turkish Muslims at the beginning of the twentieth century. According to a report by Khartoum University professors Ushari Mahmud and Suleyman Ali Blado, more than one thousand Dinka citizens were massacred in the Western Sudan town of Diem in 1987. The Baptist Record newspaper of November 5, 1987, added that dozens of pastors have been killed and many churches destroyed since Islamic law was imposed in 1983, when Sudan was officially declared an Islamic republic. The Baptist World Alliance newsletter of September, 1987, tells of 130 church buildings and pastor's homes, all of Christian denominations in Kadona State in Nigeria, being destroyed by Muslim rioters.

Where does this rampant slaughter in the name of religion come from. It is taught in the Quran as revealed by the prophet Muhammad.

Surat al-Taubah (Repentance) 9:29 Fight against such of those who have been given the Scripture as believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, and forbid not that which Allah hath forbidden by His messenger, and follow not the religion of truth, until they pay the tribute readily, being brought low.

In conclusion;
Muhammad was a man. He did not heal the sick, give sight to the blind, nor raise the dead. Muhammad taught blood shed and violence. He promoted a multitude of sins including theft, lying, murder, adultery, and pedophilia. Anyone that is following his teachings is doing so blindly with out considering the actions of the man they have chosen to follow. Do not look for the interpretations of the life and teachings of Muhammad to be taught to you by others who seek power and authority over you by religious control. Research who Muhammad was, look at the documented history of his life, and what he did or did not accomplish. Ask, no, beg, the true God of Creation to show you the truth about Muhammad. Seek the truth of God through His Old and New Testament Word first, and then compare the life of Muhammad to that of Jesus Christ.

Am I being judgmental in my expressing the negative lifestyle and teachings of Muhammed?

Awareness of documented history and making judgment calls on such is not judging un-righteously, nor is it being self-righteous. An honest and unbiased study of documented history clearly reveals Islam's ongoing murderous conquering of Christian, Jewish, and other peoples. E.g. Battle of the Ditch in where Mohammed slaughtered the Banu Qurayza Jewish tribes of Medina and The Battle of the Trench massacre of the Jews of Banu Qurayza are only two examples, among hundreds, of factual Islamic violence and bloodshed. Islam, as the second fastest growing religion on earth. With a global population on earth of 6.9 billion, 2 billion of the worlds population are Muslim. Islam is a rapidly growing encroachment on all other religions. The evil you tolerate today can destroy everything you hold dear in the near future. Here are just a few of the hundreds of teachings of Islam promoting murder through war to spread the lies of Islam.

Quran-33:25- “Allah turned back the unbelievers [Meccans and their allies] in a state of rage, having not won any good, and Allah spared the believers battle. Allah is, indeed, Strong and Mighty.”

Quran-33:26- “And He brought those of the People of the Book [Jewish people of Banu Qurayza] who supported them from their fortresses and cast terror into their hearts, some of them you slew (beheaded) and some you took prisoners (captive)”

Quran-33:27- “And He made you heirs of their lands, their houses, and their goods, and of a land which ye had not frequented (before). And Allah has power over all things.” [Merciful Allah asked Prophet Muhammad to confiscate entire properties of surrendered Jews]

Quran-8:67—“It is not fitting for an Apostle that he should have prisoners of war until He thoroughly subdued the land….” (Allah insisting Prophet to kill all the prisoners, and should not keep any surrendered prisoners alive until He (Prophet) occupied entire Arabia.”

Quran-8:17—It is not ye who Slew them; it is God; when thou threw a handful of dust, it was not Thy act, but God’s…..” (Allah said, the killing of surrendered soldiers were done by the wish of Allah)

Consider:

Is Islam a religion of peace and morality?

Was Mohammad a true prophet of God or were his teachings merely the vain and self serving imaginations of a man out of control and accountable to no one, not even to God?

Did Muhammad seek to bring his followers to know God the Creator, or were Muhammad's teachings designed to benefit his own personal, social, political, and sexual ambitions and desires?

Does the historical record of Muhammad's life show holiness, piety, morality, and honor of women and his fellow man? Absolutely not!

My prayer for you is that you not be a blind follower. Your eternal soul hangs in the balance between damnation and salvation. Choose salvation. Choose the God of the Old and New Testament Bibles. Choose the ONLY way to God, Jesus.

Kindly, Barry L. Brumfield

Please see: Compare Islam and Christianity

By written request this article may be reproduced at no cost.

References:

* Encyclopedia of Islam
* Islamic Librarian UE- Who was Mohammed, 1967 IL4453
* The Koran Interpreted: a translation by A. J. Arberry,1996 ISBN 0684825074
* Islam, by Fazlur Rahman, University of Chicago Press; 2nd edition (1979). ISBN 0226702812
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* Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism Omid Safi, Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 1989, 1997. ISBN 1-85168-316-X
* The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder, Bassam Tibi, Univ. of California Press, 1998
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^ See:
Qur'an 18:110
F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ See:
F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28
^ F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ See:
Holt (1977a), p.57
Hourani (2003), p.22
Lapidus (2002), p.32
Madelung (1996), p.43
Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
^ See
Holt (1977a), p.74
L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
^ Waines (2003) p.46
^ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, ''Historic cities of the Islamic world'', page 260. BRILL, 2007. Books.google.com. 2007. ISBN 9789004153882. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^ Nnamdi Elleh, ''Architecture and power in Africa'', page 115. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002. Books.google.fr. 2002. ISBN 9780275976798. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^ John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance, page 104. Taylor & Francis, 1983.
^ Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick
^ See:
Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
"Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ Hawting (2000), p.4
^ Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83
^ "Great Mosque of Kairouan". Muslim Heritage.com. 2003-04-24. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ See:
Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
Lapidus (2002), p.56
Lewis (1993), p.84
L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Lapidus (2002), p.86
^ See:
Lapidus (2002), p.160
Waines (2003) p.126,127
^ See:
Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
"Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41
^ Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). "Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective". PUQ. p.200. ISBN 2760515885
^ Micheau, Françoise. "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East". pp. 991–2, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007)
^ Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837
^ Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 A.D.. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 9004061312
^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242
^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423
^ "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate". Planetseed.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 84.

"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."

^ Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:

"According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable."

^ BBC News The ‘first true scientist.’
^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
^ See:
Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
"Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
^ See:
Lapidus (2002), p.292
"Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves. Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 516. ISBN 0313341028.
^ Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science
^ See
Holt (1977a), p.263
Lapidus (2002), p.250
"Istanbul". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ See:
Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
^ "Islamic Art". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press
^ See:
Lapidus (2002), p.572
Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
^ Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
^ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
^ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708
^ Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
^ "New Turkey". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835
^ "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ "24-hours Islamic International TV channel". Peace TV. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
^ Nigosian (2004), pp.41
^ See:
Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
^ Rippin (2001), p.288
^ Hameed S (2008). "Bracing for Islamic creationism". Science 322 (5908): 1637–8. doi:10.1126/science.1163672. PMID 19074331.
^ For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
^ For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.
^ Westerlund (2003)
^ Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu (2003-11-17). "Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images". Advance, University of Connecticut.
^ See:
Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
Watt (1974), p.231
^ Nigosian, pp.41
^ Ernst (2004), p.11
^ Berman, Paul (June 4, 2007). "Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism.". The New Republic.
^ Haddad and Ramadan (2002), pp.163
^ a b "Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
^ See:
Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
D. W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
^ See:
Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
"Shariah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
"Sunnite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ Salafi Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.
^ See
Lapidus (2002), p.46
"Imam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
"Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
^ See:
Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
Nasr (1994), p.466
^ See:
Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shiism pp.237–254
Shia branches
^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
^ "Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths". Uga.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ See:
Esposito (2003), p.302
Malik (2006), p.3
B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
"Afghanistan: A Country Study - Sufism". Library of Congress Country Studies. 1997. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
^ "Ahmadiyya Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
^ It is believed that Salih Ibn Tarif was a Jewish born in the Iberian Peninsula - Kitab Al-Istibsar, transl. of E. Fagnan, L'Afrique Septentrionale au XII siécle de notre Ere, Argel, 1900, p. 157.
^ See:
UGA.edu, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction
J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
"al-Ibāḍiyya". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ "Valerie J. Hoffman, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction". Uga.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ Miller (2009), p.11
^ Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kassim Kone (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 0313328250, 9780313328251page=1. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
^ Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0567094529.
^ "Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ Secrets of Islam – U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
^ Miller (2009), pp.15,17
^ "Number of Muslim by country". nationmaster.com. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
^ "CIA – The World Factbook – China". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
^ "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". State.gov. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
^ "NW China region eyes global Muslim market". China Daily. 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
^ "Muslim Media Network". Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
^ Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.
^ See:
Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
"Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
"Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News (BBC). 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2006-09-28.
"Religion In Britain". National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13. Retrieved 2006-08-27.
^ The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
^ "Islam", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)
^ Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Books.google.com. 1997. ISBN 9780521455992. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^ Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3
^ See:
Adil (2002), p.288
F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
B. van Dalen; R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al.. "Tarikh̲". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
^ Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com

Footnotes

^ There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/ as in father, /æ/ as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) /ə/ as in the a of sofa (Merriam Webster). The most common are /ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).

Books and journals

Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1). ISSN 0959-6410.
Adil, Hajjah Amina; Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2002). Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118.
Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1860642579.
Armstrong, Karen (2006). Muhammad: A Prophet for our Time. HarperCollins. ISBN 006059897-2.
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1570034710.
Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986.
Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0813819464.
Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2614-0.
Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4.
Esposito, John; John Obert Voll (1996). Islam and Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510816-7.
Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195112344.
Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999.
Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195168860.
Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195182668.
Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812018530.
Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0764-12226-2.
Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5125800.
Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994.
Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342757.
Griffith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709.
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press.
Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240735.
Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1553698425.
Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364.
Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178.
Humphreys, Stephen (2005). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. ISBN 052-0246918.
Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0313324727.
Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191.
Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813304533.
Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114.
Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0.
Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5258-2.
Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684832807.
Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0812695182.
Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0060516055.
Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0812967852.
Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
Malik, Jamal; John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415274087.
Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858593.
Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction". Journal of Law and Religion (Journal of Law and Religion, Inc.) 3 (2): 381. doi:10.2307/1051182. JSTOR 1051182.
Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300035315.
Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06067-700-7.
Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press.
Novak, David (February 1999). "The Mind of Maimonides". First Things.
Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures (Brill Academic Publishers) 16 (3): 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 9004103147.
Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies.
Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
Peters, Rudolph (1977). Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-04854-5.
Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415217811.
Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 01-92-80606-8.
Sahas, Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004034952.
Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195119150.
Seibert, Robert F.; Daniel, Norman (1994). "Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of Religious Research (Religious Research Association, Inc.) 36 (1): 88. doi:10.2307/3511655. JSTOR 3511655.
Sells, Michael Anthony; Emran Qureshi (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126670.
Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156492.
Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1.
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; R. Campbell (translator) (2002). Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. Green Gold. ISBN 0-922817-00-6.
Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0749647964.
Tolan, John V. (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231123329.
Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195120582.
Tritton, Arthur S. (1970) [1930]. The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN 0-7146-1996-5.
Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 041534106X. ISBN 041534106X.
Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0415174589.
Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85-224245-X.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 9004120661.
Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-79076-7.
Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle East. Greenhaven Pr. ISBN 0737701331.

Encyclopedias

William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101.
Gabriel Oussani, ed (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia.
Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1593392369.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc..
Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5.
John Bowden, ed (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4.
George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor, ed (1995). Encyclopedia of the Future. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028972053.
P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028656038.
Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
Lindsay Jones, ed (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657332.
Salamone Frank, ed (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780415941808.
Peter N. Stearns, ed (2000). The Encyclopedia of World History Online (6th ed.). Bartleby.
Josef W. Meri, ed (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 041-5966906.
Wendy Doniger, ed (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0877790442.
Glasse Cyril, ed (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906.
Edward Craig, ed (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415073103.